The Life and Legacy of Pope Francis: A Tribute

Pope Francis, born Jorge Mario Bergoglio, the 266th pontiff of the Roman Catholic Church, died on Easter Monday, April 21, 2025, at the age of 88. His death occurred at his residence in the Vatican’s Casa Santa Marta, following a period of declining health culminating in double pneumonia.¹ His passing marks the end of a transformative and often turbulent 12-year pontificate that began with his historic election on March 13, 2013.¹ Francis was a pope of many firsts: the first Jesuit, the first from the Americas, the first from the Southern Hemisphere, and the first non-European pope since the 8th-century Syrian Pope Gregory III.¹ Often described as an “outsider pope” hailing from the “periphery,” he brought a distinct perspective shaped by his experiences in Argentina, challenging Eurocentric assumptions and Vatican traditions from the outset.⁴

His papacy was characterized by a profound emphasis on mercy, outreach to the poor and marginalized, a call for environmental stewardship, efforts toward Church reform, and a commitment to interreligious dialogue and global peace. From his first simple greeting of “Buonasera” to the crowds in St. Peter’s Square ⁵, he signaled a departure from papal formality, cultivating an image of humility and pastoral closeness that resonated with many worldwide but also generated significant internal resistance.³ This tribute explores the journey of Jorge Mario Bergoglio from his humble beginnings in Buenos Aires to his election as Bishop of Rome, examining the defining themes of his papacy, his major teachings, diplomatic endeavors, the considerable challenges he navigated, and the complex, enduring legacy he leaves for the Catholic Church and the world.

I. From Buenos Aires to the World Stage: The Formative Years

A. Early Life, Education, and the Call to Service

The man who would become Pope Francis entered the world as Jorge Mario Bergoglio on December 17, 1936, in the Flores neighborhood of Buenos Aires, Argentina.¹ He was the eldest of five children born to Mario José Bergoglio, an accountant employed by the railways, and Regina María Sívori, a dedicated homemaker.¹ His parents were Italian immigrants, or children of immigrants, from the Piedmont region; his father’s family had left Italy in 1929, reportedly to escape Benito Mussolini’s fascist regime rather than for purely economic reasons.¹ Growing up in a working-class area ¹⁸, Jorge became fluent in both Spanish and Italian ²¹, absorbing the cultural milieu of the large Italian diaspora in Argentina. His only living sibling at the time of his death was his sister, María Elena.¹

His early education took place in public schools, including a Salesian institution.¹ He then attended a technical secondary school, graduating with a diploma as a chemical technician.¹ This scientific training was complemented by practical work experience; he worked for several years in the food section of the Hickethier-Bachmann Laboratory ¹ and held various other jobs during his youth, including janitor and even nightclub bouncer.⁴ He was known to enjoy life, with passions for soccer – particularly his beloved San Lorenzo club ⁴⁸ – and the tango.⁴⁶

This blend of scientific education, practical labor, and cultural immersion formed part of a unique background. His training in chemistry fostered an understanding of empirical reality and process, while his work experiences connected him to the everyday lives and struggles of ordinary people. These elements, combined with a profound faith, likely contributed to a worldview grounded in both tangible realities and spiritual conviction. This synthesis perhaps laid the groundwork for his later ability to integrate scientific understanding into theological reflection, most notably in his environmental encyclical Laudato Si’ ⁹, and informed his deep empathy for human suffering and fragility, a cornerstone of his emphasis on mercy.³⁰

His youth was also marked by a significant health crisis. Around the age of 21, in 1957, Bergoglio fell gravely ill with severe pneumonia, which necessitated surgery to remove part of his right lung.² While he recovered and lived a full life, this condition left him susceptible to respiratory illnesses, which became more frequent in his later years, including the double pneumonia that preceded his death.² Surviving such a serious illness may well have deepened his spiritual perspective and his understanding of human vulnerability.

Despite an early girlfriend and perhaps initial thoughts of marriage ²¹, Bergoglio felt a strong calling to the priesthood.⁸ A pivotal moment occurred on Argentina’s Spring Day (September 21) when, on his way to celebrate, he stopped at a church for confession and was profoundly inspired by the priest he encountered.¹ This experience solidified his vocation. He entered the diocesan seminary in Villa Devoto ⁶ before deciding to join the Society of Jesus. His mother, though devoutly Catholic, was initially unsupportive of his decision to enter the priesthood but eventually accepted his path, asking for his blessing at his ordination.⁶

B. Jesuit Formation and Rising Through the Ranks

On March 11, 1958, at the age of 21, Jorge Bergoglio entered the novitiate of the Society of Jesus.¹ His Jesuit formation began with studies in the humanities in Santiago, Chile.¹ He officially became a Jesuit on March 12, 1960, professing the initial, perpetual vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.¹

Returning to Argentina, he pursued higher education, earning a licentiate (equivalent to a master’s degree) in philosophy from the Colegio Máximo de San José in San Miguel, a suburb of Buenos Aires, in 1963.¹ Following this, he entered a period of teaching, known as regency in Jesuit formation, instructing literature and psychology at Immaculate Conception College in Santa Fe (1964-1965) and then at the prestigious Colegio del Salvador in Buenos Aires (1966).⁶

From 1967 to 1970, Bergoglio undertook theological studies back at the Facultades de Filosofía y Teología de San Miguel (Colegio of San José).¹ He was ordained to the priesthood on December 13, 1969, by Archbishop Ramón José Castellano.¹ His formation continued with the final stage, tertianship, at the University of Alcalá de Henares in Spain from 1970 to 1971.¹ On April 22, 1973, he professed his final vows as a Jesuit, including the distinctive fourth vow of special obedience to the Pope regarding missions.¹

Following his final vows, he served as master of novices at Villa Barilari in San Miguel and became a professor at the Faculty of Theology there, quickly assuming roles of responsibility within the order.¹

C. Leadership in Turbulent Times: The Jesuit Provincialate and the “Dirty War”

Just months after taking his final vows, on July 31, 1973, Jorge Bergoglio was appointed Provincial Superior of the Jesuits in Argentina, an unusually young age (36) for such a significant leadership position. He held this office for six years, until 1979.¹ His tenure coincided with one of the darkest periods in Argentine history: the military coup of 1976 led by Lieutenant General Jorge Rafael Videla and the subsequent “Dirty War” (Guerra Sucia), a brutal campaign of state terrorism against perceived political dissidents that resulted in the forced disappearance and murder of thousands (estimated between 10,000 and 30,000).⁸

Bergoglio’s leadership during this period became a subject of intense controversy that would follow him throughout his life. The most significant accusations centered on the May 1976 kidnapping, detention, and torture of two Jesuit priests, Orlando Yorio and Franz Jalics.¹ Both priests worked in impoverished slum neighborhoods (villas miserias) and were associated with liberation theology, activities viewed with suspicion by the military junta.⁴⁶ Critics, including Father Yorio himself after his release, alleged that Bergoglio failed to protect them and may have effectively withdrawn the Jesuit order’s protection, possibly by not endorsing their work to authorities or even expelling them from the order shortly before their abduction, thereby leaving them vulnerable.¹ Some accounts suggested Bergoglio viewed their ministry as too politically aligned with leftist movements he opposed.⁴⁶

Bergoglio consistently denied these accusations. He maintained that he had worked discreetly behind the scenes to secure the priests’ release, claiming to have hidden several people from the authorities and even interceded directly, albeit covertly, with junta leader Videla and Admiral Emilio Massera on behalf of Yorio and Jalics.¹ Father Jalics, years later, stated that while their relationship with Bergoglio had been strained, it was wrong to assert their capture was initiated by Bergoglio and that they were not denounced by him.¹ Other human rights figures, including Nobel Peace Prize laureate Adolfo Pérez Esquivel and former judge Alicia Oliveira, defended Bergoglio, stating he had helped many people flee Argentina during the dictatorship and had never collaborated with the regime.¹ A lawsuit filed against Bergoglio in 2005 charging him with complicity in the priests’ disappearance was ultimately dismissed.¹⁹

Theologically and politically, Bergoglio was perceived during this era as generally conservative, particularly in his opposition to Marxist-influenced strains of liberation theology that were prominent in parts of Latin America.²² He reportedly emphasized traditional pastoral roles for Jesuits over direct political activism or the formation of “base communities” focused on social analysis.²² Some sources suggest his appointment as Provincial was intended to counter more left-leaning elements within the Argentine Jesuit province and that his leadership style caused internal divisions.⁵³

This difficult chapter remained a sensitive point throughout Bergoglio’s career, reportedly resurfacing to hinder his potential candidacy in the 2005 papal conclave.⁵⁹ The conflicting narratives underscore the perilous complexities faced by religious leaders under repressive regimes, where choices between institutional prudence, theological conviction, and direct confrontation carry immense risks. While Bergoglio maintained he acted covertly to save lives, critics argued his actions reflected an institutional caution that failed to adequately challenge the junta’s atrocities.⁵⁴ This period undoubtedly shaped his understanding of power, conflict, and the Church’s role in society. His later strong emphasis on reconciliation, dialogue (as seen in Fratelli Tutti ³⁶), and social justice, coupled with his eventual leadership in issuing a collective apology for the Church’s failures during the Dirty War ¹, suggests a personal and institutional reckoning with this traumatic national and personal history.

D. Archbishop Bergoglio: Pastor to a City in Crisis

Following his term as Jesuit Provincial, Bergoglio returned to academic and pastoral roles, serving again as rector of the Colegio Máximo in San Miguel from 1980 to 1986, while also teaching theology and acting as a parish priest.⁶ In March 1986, he went to Freiburg, Germany, to work on a doctoral thesis focused on the theologian Romano Guardini, though the doctorate was apparently never completed.⁶ Upon his return to Argentina, he experienced a period often described as a form of exile, assigned first to the Colegio del Salvador in Buenos Aires and then to the Jesuit church in the city of Córdoba as a spiritual director and confessor (around 1990-1992).⁴ This move reportedly stemmed from internal disagreements or tensions within the Jesuit order following his provincialate. Bergoglio himself later referred to his time as Jesuit leader as containing mistakes and described the Cordoba period as one of “interior crisis” that significantly shaped him.⁴

His return to prominence came in 1992 when Pope John Paul II appointed him Auxiliary Bishop of Buenos Aires on May 20, with his episcopal consecration following on June 27.⁷ He quickly gained responsibilities, being appointed Episcopal Vicar for the Flores district and Vicar General of the Archdiocese in 1993.⁷ On June 3, 1997, he was named Coadjutor Archbishop, designated to succeed the incumbent Cardinal Antonio Quarracino.¹⁸ Upon Cardinal Quarracino’s death, Bergoglio became Archbishop of Buenos Aires on February 28, 1998, also serving as Primate of Argentina and Ordinary for Eastern-rite faithful lacking their own Ordinary.¹ His elevation to the College of Cardinals by John Paul II followed on February 21, 2001, with the titular church of San Roberto Bellarmino.¹

During his 15 years leading the Archdiocese of Buenos Aires, Cardinal Bergoglio cultivated a distinct pastoral identity. He became widely known, affectionately called “Father Jorge,” for his profound personal humility, simplicity, and austere lifestyle.³ He famously eschewed the archbishop’s residence, choosing instead to live in a simple apartment where he cooked his own meals, and frequently used public transportation like buses and the subway.³ “My people are poor and I am one of them,” he often stated, explaining his choices.⁷ This simplicity extended to his ministry, where he became a powerful advocate for the poor and marginalized. He significantly increased the Church’s presence in the city’s sprawling shantytowns (villas miserias), doubling the number of priests working there and making frequent personal visits, earning him the nickname “the Slum Bishop”.¹ He built new chapels and missions in these areas and famously celebrated the Holy Thursday Mandatum (foot-washing ritual) in unconventional settings like jails, hospitals, and slums, demonstrating solidarity with those on the fringes.¹

As Archbishop, his vision centered on mission, communion, and evangelization.⁷ He outlined four main goals for the archdiocese: fostering open and fraternal communities, empowering an informed laity, reaching every inhabitant with the Gospel, and providing concrete assistance to the poor and sick.⁷ He urged his priests to show mercy, apostolic courage, and to keep their doors open to everyone, while warning against the dangers of “spiritual worldliness”—a self-centeredness that forgets the mission.⁷ He restructured archdiocesan administration, led pro-life initiatives, and established a commission on divorces.¹ Early in his tenure, demonstrating fiscal prudence, he sold the archdiocese’s shares in banks and moved accounts to international institutions.¹

His theological stance continued to blend doctrinal conservatism with a passionate commitment to social justice.¹ While upholding traditional Church teachings on issues like abortion and marriage ²², his social advocacy was deeply informed by Argentina’s specific “theology of the people” (teología del pueblo).¹² This theological current, emerging after Vatican II, shared the “preferential option for the poor” with liberation theology but focused less on Marxist class analysis and more on the culture, popular piety, and collective identity of “the people” (el pueblo), particularly the poor, as a source of faith and hope, emphasizing unity over conflict.¹² This differed from the liberation theology he had reportedly resisted as Provincial.⁵³ His actions reflected this blend: he reconciled with a bishop known for opposing the dictatorship and, as head of the Argentine Bishops’ Conference (elected president 2005-2011 ¹), he led the bishops in issuing a collective apology for the Church’s failures during the Dirty War.¹ He also attended the pivotal 2007 meeting of Latin American bishops in Aparecida, Brazil, playing a key role in drafting the final document, which he considered profoundly important for the continent’s evangelization.⁷

Cardinal Bergoglio’s leadership became particularly prominent during Argentina’s devastating economic crisis in the late 1990s and early 2000s, culminating in 2001-2002.⁴ He emerged as an outspoken critic of the political corruption and neoliberal economic policies he saw as contributing to the crisis, denouncing the “tyranny of the markets” and the “growing gap between rich and poor”.²² He mediated talks between political factions, union leaders, and citizens groups, helping to manage social unrest.²² His strong stance and visible solidarity with the suffering population significantly raised his public profile and solidified his reputation as a champion of the poor.⁴

In essence, Bergoglio’s 15 years as Archbishop of Buenos Aires served as a crucible, forging the pastoral priorities and leadership style that would later define his papacy. His personal austerity, his unwavering focus on the poor and those on the peripheries, his critique of economic injustice rooted in direct experience, his emphasis on mercy and pastoral accompaniment, and his warnings against ecclesial self-absorption were all hallmarks of his ministry in Argentina.¹ This period demonstrated that the core themes of the Francis papacy were not adopted upon election but were deeply ingrained convictions, honed through decades of navigating the complex social, political, and religious landscape of Latin America, particularly through the lens of the “theology of the people” and the influential Aparecida conference.⁷ He arrived in Rome not as a blank slate, but as a seasoned pastor with a clear, albeit distinct, vision for the Church.

II. A Surprise from the End of the Earth: The 2013 Conclave

A. Benedict’s Resignation and the Interregnum

The stage for Jorge Mario Bergoglio’s unexpected rise to the papacy was set by an equally unexpected event: the resignation of his predecessor, Pope Benedict XVI. On February 11, 2013, the World Day of the Sick, Benedict stunned the Church and the world by announcing his intention to renounce the Petrine ministry, effective February 28, 2013.⁶⁶ At 85, he cited his deteriorating strength and the increasing physical and mental demands of the papacy as reasons for his decision, stating he no longer felt suited to adequately exercise the ministry entrusted to him.⁶⁶ His biographer later revealed that chronic insomnia, plaguing him since 2005, was a central factor.⁶⁸

Benedict’s resignation was a watershed moment. He became the first pope to abdicate in nearly 600 years, since Gregory XII was forced to resign in 1415 to end the Western Schism, and the first to do so voluntarily since Celestine V in 1294.²³ While the 1983 Code of Canon Law provided for papal resignation if made freely and properly manifested ⁶⁶, the move broke with the modern tradition of popes serving until death.⁷¹ Benedict assumed the title “Pope Emeritus” and dedicated his remaining years to a life of prayer within the Vatican grounds.⁶⁶

The resignation occurred against a backdrop of significant challenges for the Church, including the ongoing clergy sexual abuse crisis and the “VatiLeaks” scandal, which exposed internal conflicts and financial mismanagement within the Vatican.⁶⁶ While Benedict consistently attributed his decision to age and health, the timing inevitably led some to speculate about other pressures.⁶⁸ A small minority even questioned the validity of the resignation, arguing technicalities in the Latin phrasing or alleging coercion, though Benedict himself repeatedly affirmed the freedom and validity of his act.⁶⁶

Regardless of the specific internal pressures or personal motivations, Benedict XVI’s historic decision acted as a catalyst. It implicitly acknowledged the immense burdens of the modern papacy and created an opening for the College of Cardinals to elect a successor perceived as potentially better equipped to handle the complex challenges of governance, reform, and restoring trust in a Church grappling with scandal and seeking renewal.⁵ It broke a centuries-old mold and allowed for the possibility of a different kind of leadership to emerge.

B. The Election of Pope Francis

Following Benedict’s departure, the cardinals gathered in Rome for the interregnum. Formal invitations to the conclave were issued on March 1, and general congregations began on March 4 to discuss the state of the Church and the qualities needed in the next pope.⁶⁷ The conclave itself commenced on the afternoon of March 12, 2013, within the historic Sistine Chapel, which had been specially prepared with security measures, including electronic jamming systems and a Faraday cage, to ensure secrecy and prevent outside communication.²³

One hundred fifteen cardinal electors, representing the global Church but with a significant European bloc, participated in the voting process.⁶⁷ They were housed in the Casa Santa Marta residence within the Vatican.⁷⁵ The election required a two-thirds majority, meaning 77 votes were needed for a successful outcome.²³ The process involved secret paper ballots, inscribed with the Latin words “Eligo in Summum Pontificem” (“I elect as Supreme Pontiff”), which were folded, carried to the altar, and placed in an urn after each cardinal swore an oath.⁷⁴ Scrutineers then counted the votes, announcing the names aloud, before the ballots were burned in a stove, sending smoke signals – black for an inconclusive vote, white for a successful election – up a chimney visible to the waiting crowds in St. Peter’s Square.⁷⁴

While several cardinals were considered papabili (potential candidates), including Angelo Scola of Milan and Marc Ouellet of Canada, Cardinal Bergoglio of Buenos Aires was generally seen as a possibility but not a frontrunner.⁶⁷ However, the voting revealed surprisingly strong support for the Argentine cardinal from the start. According to Vatican journalist Gerard O’Connell’s account, the first ballot on the evening of March 12 showed Scola leading with 30 votes, but Bergoglio close behind with 26 (potentially 27, accounting for a misspelled ballot), followed by Ouellet with 22 and Sean O’Malley of Boston with 10.⁷⁴ This immediate strong showing for Bergoglio indicated a significant bloc of cardinals favoured his profile early on.⁷⁴

The conclave proceeded relatively quickly, one of the shortest in modern history.²³ After four more rounds of voting on March 13, white smoke finally emerged from the Sistine Chapel chimney in the early evening, signaling that a new pope had been elected.²³ Cardinal Jean-Louis Tauran, the Protodeacon, appeared on the central balcony (loggia) of St. Peter’s Basilica to make the traditional announcement: “Habemus Papam!” (“We have a pope!”).²³ He then revealed the identity of the elected cardinal: Jorge Mario Bergoglio, who had chosen the papal name Francis.⁶⁷

At 76 years old, the newly elected Pope Francis stepped onto the loggia.⁶ In a striking break with tradition that immediately captured global attention, he offered a simple, almost disarming greeting: “Fratelli e sorelle, buonasera” (“Brothers and sisters, good evening”).⁵ Before imparting the traditional papal blessing Urbi et Orbi (to the city and the world), he did something unprecedented: he bowed his head and asked the thousands gathered in the square, and the millions watching worldwide, to pray for him, asking God’s blessing upon their new bishop.⁵ This act of humility set the tone for a papacy that would consistently emphasize approachability and a departure from monarchical trappings.³

The relatively swift election of a Jesuit cardinal from Latin America, known for his simple lifestyle and pastoral work among the poor ¹, suggested a clear mandate from the College of Cardinals. Facing the challenges left by Benedict’s papacy and the need for renewal, the electors appeared to coalesce around a figure who embodied a potential shift towards reform (both curial and financial), a more pastoral and less Eurocentric approach, and leadership from the rapidly growing Church in the Global South.⁵

C. “Francis”: A Name Signaling a Vision

The choice of the papal name “Francis” was itself historic and deeply symbolic. Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first pope ever to select this name.¹ He later explained that the name came to him during the conclave’s final moments. As the votes reached the two-thirds majority needed for his election, his friend, the Brazilian Cardinal Cláudio Hummes, embraced him and whispered, “Não se esqueça dos pobres” (“Don’t forget the poor”).⁷⁷

Those words struck Bergoglio deeply, immediately bringing to mind Saint Francis of Assisi, the 13th-century Italian saint renowned for his radical embrace of poverty, his dedication to peace, his love for creation, and his mission to rebuild a Church perceived as being in ruins.¹ The new pope explicitly linked his choice to these aspects: “For me, [Francis of Assisi] is the man of poverty, the man of peace, the man who loves and protects creation… He is the man who gives us this spirit of peace, the poor man…”.⁷⁷ He famously added, echoing the sentiment that inspired the name, “How I would like a Church which is poor and for the poor!”.⁷⁷

While acknowledging the connection to Saint Francis Xavier, a fellow Jesuit and great missionary ⁸⁰, Pope Francis clarified that his primary inspiration was the Poverello of Assisi.⁷⁷ The choice was widely interpreted as “precedent-shattering” ⁷⁷, a clear signal that his papacy would not be “business as usual” but would chart a new course, prioritizing the themes embodied by his namesake.

Indeed, the name “Francis” served as a virtual manifesto, encapsulating the core priorities that would define his pontificate. It foreshadowed his relentless focus on poverty, inequality, and the marginalized ²⁸; his groundbreaking encyclical on environmental stewardship, Laudato Si’ ⁸³; his tireless efforts for peace and interreligious dialogue, particularly with Islam ³⁶; and his commitment to Church reform and renewal, echoing St. Francis’s call to “rebuild my church”.⁸⁰ It was a name chosen not just for personal devotion, but as a programmatic statement of intent, aligning his leadership with one of Catholicism’s most universally admired and challenging figures, setting a demanding standard for himself and for the Church from the very first day.

III. The Francis Pontificate: Core Priorities and Teachings

A. Mercy as the Keystone: A “Poor Church for the Poor”

Central to the pontificate of Pope Francis was an unwavering emphasis on the mercy of God. This theme permeated his teachings, gestures, and governance, finding expression in his chosen papal motto, Miserando atque eligendo (“by having mercy and by choosing”), which references the Gospel account of Jesus calling Matthew the tax collector.¹ Francis often spoke of his own profound experience of God’s mercy as a 17-year-old during confession, an event he considered foundational to his vocation and worldview.³⁰

He envisioned and consistently called for a Church characterized by pastoral outreach, encounter, accompaniment, and compassion, rather than one primarily defined by rigid rules, judgment, or condemnation.³⁰ His famous off-the-cuff remark early in his papacy regarding gay priests – “Who am I to judge?” ⁵ – sent a powerful message of welcome to LGBTQ+ individuals and others who felt alienated or judged by the Church. He frequently employed the metaphor of the Church as a “field hospital after battle,” needing primarily to heal wounds and warm hearts.³ He expressed a preference for a Church that was “bruised, hurting, and dirty because it has been out on the streets, rather than a Church which is unhealthy from being confined and from clinging to its own security”.⁶

To underscore this central theme, Francis declared an Extraordinary Jubilee Year of Mercy, which ran from December 8, 2015, to November 20, 2016.²⁸ In a significant departure from tradition, he opened the Jubilee’s Holy Door not in Rome, but in the cathedral of Bangui, the capital of the war-torn Central African Republic, symbolizing his desire to bring mercy to the world’s peripheries.³⁰ Throughout the year, he performed symbolic “Fridays of Mercy,” visiting marginalized groups ⁸⁵, and emphasized the importance of both the spiritual and corporal works of mercy, including care for creation as a new work of mercy.⁸⁶ He also established a new apostolate of “Missionaries of Mercy,” priests given special faculties to preach about mercy and encourage participation in the Sacrament of Reconciliation (Confession).²⁹

This focus on mercy was intrinsically linked to his deep concern for the poor, the marginalized, migrants, and refugees – those often residing on the “existential peripheries”.⁴ His oft-repeated phrase, “My people are poor and I am one of them,” inherited from his time in Buenos Aires, was reflected in his personal lifestyle choices as pope.⁷ He famously opted to live in the Casa Santa Marta guesthouse rather than the opulent Apostolic Palace, used modest cars, carried his own briefcase, invited homeless individuals to celebrate his birthday at the Vatican, and initiated services like free showers and laundries for Rome’s destitute population near St. Peter’s Square.³ His very first trip outside Rome was to the Italian island of Lampedusa, a primary arrival point for migrants crossing the Mediterranean, where he mourned the drowned and denounced the “globalization of indifference” toward their plight.⁹ He urged every Catholic parish and monastery in Europe to welcome a migrant family.²⁸

His advocacy for the poor extended to a sharp critique of contemporary economic systems that foster inequality and exclusion. He frequently condemned a “throwaway culture” that discards both goods and people ³, criticized aspects of unfettered capitalism and market fundamentalism ³, and stressed the “profound connection between evangelization and human advancement”.⁸⁸

While Francis intended mercy to be a source of healing and unity, its application became a significant point of contention within the Church. His pastoral strategy, emphasizing accompaniment and discernment in complex moral situations, particularly regarding the possibility of divorced and remarried Catholics receiving Communion as outlined in his exhortation Amoris Laetitia ³⁰, sparked intense debate and vocal opposition from conservative quarters. Critics argued that this approach created ambiguity and potentially undermined unchanging Church doctrine on marriage, sin, and the Eucharist.¹⁶ This controversy highlighted a fundamental tension within his pontificate between the desire for pastoral flexibility and the demand for doctrinal clarity, demonstrating how the very theme intended to foster inclusion paradoxically exposed deep fissures within Catholicism regarding the interpretation and application of Church teaching.

B. “Care for Our Common Home”: Environmental Stewardship (Laudato Si’ & Laudate Deum)

Pope Francis made the care for creation, or environmental stewardship, a defining hallmark of his papacy, elevating it to a central concern of Catholic social teaching.⁹ He framed this concern not merely as an ecological issue but as a profound moral and spiritual imperative, deeply intertwined with justice for the poor and responsibility towards future generations.

His most significant contribution in this area was the 2015 encyclical Laudato Si’: On Care for Our Common Home.⁹ The title, taken from Saint Francis of Assisi’s Canticle of the Creatures, immediately signaled its inspiration.⁹³ Groundbreaking for its integration of scientific data on issues like climate change ⁹, the encyclical presented a vision of “integral ecology,” emphasizing that “everything is connected” – the environment, the economy, social justice, culture, and daily life.³⁶ It powerfully argued that there is an “intimate relationship between the poor and the fragility of the planet” ⁸⁴, meaning that environmental degradation disproportionately harms the world’s most vulnerable populations.

Laudato Si’ offered a trenchant critique of the dominant “technocratic paradigm,” which views nature merely as an object to be manipulated and exploited for profit, and condemned the excesses of consumerism and a “throwaway culture”.⁸⁴ It called for a profound “ecological conversion” at both personal and communal levels, involving changes in lifestyle, production, and consumption.⁸⁴ Francis stressed that human dominion over creation, as described in Genesis, should be understood as responsible stewardship – “to till and keep” the garden – not as license for domination and plunder.⁸³ The encyclical urged global dialogue and decisive political action to address environmental challenges, particularly climate change, which it identified as “one of the principal challenges facing humanity”.⁴⁵ It also affirmed access to safe drinking water as a fundamental human right.⁹³

This focus on integral ecology demonstrated that, for Francis, environmentalism was inseparable from social justice. It was not an optional add-on to Catholic teaching but a core requirement of faith, flowing from the duty to care for God’s creation and love one’s neighbor, especially the poor who suffer most from ecological crises.⁸⁴ This integrated approach sought to bridge the gap often perceived between environmental concerns and social activism, mobilizing the Church’s moral conscience towards holistic action.

Eight years later, in October 2023, Francis issued a follow-up apostolic exhortation, Laudate Deum (Praise God), prompted by what he saw as inadequate global responses to the escalating climate crisis.⁴¹ Released pointedly on the Feast of Saint Francis of Assisi ⁴¹, the document struck a note of heightened urgency, warning that “the world in which we live is collapsing and may be nearing the breaking point”.⁹⁹ It forcefully reaffirmed the human (“anthropic”) origin of climate change, directly addressing and criticizing climate skepticism and denial, even noting its presence within the Catholic Church.⁹⁸

Laudate Deum highlighted the irreversible nature of some environmental damage already inflicted and the disproportionate impact on the poor.⁴² It reiterated critiques of the technocratic paradigm and weak international political will, specifically calling for more binding and effective commitments at international climate conferences like COP28.⁴² While acknowledging the need for personal and cultural change, Francis emphasized that the most effective solutions require robust political action at national and international levels, urging citizens to exert pressure on those in power.⁴² The title itself, “Praise God,” served as a reminder that claiming God’s place through unchecked power leads to self-destruction.⁴¹ Together, Laudato Si’ and Laudate Deum constitute a significant development in papal teaching, firmly establishing care for creation as an essential dimension of contemporary Catholic faith and practice.

C. Walking Together: Synodality and Ecclesial Reform

A key concept Pope Francis sought to embed within the life of the Church was “synodality,” derived from Greek words meaning “walking together”.¹⁶ He presented synodality not just as an occasional event (like a Synod of Bishops meeting) but as a fundamental mode of being Church, rooted in the teachings of the Second Vatican Council ¹⁰⁴ and characterized by mutual listening, dialogue, communal discernment, and shared responsibility among all the baptized – laity, religious, and clergy. The aim was to foster a more participatory, inclusive, and mission-oriented Church, moving away from overly hierarchical or clerical models of governance.⁵²

The synodal process, as envisioned by Francis, emphasizes certain practices: starting with listening attentively to the Holy Spirit and to one another, especially those on the margins; engaging in non-confrontational dialogue where diverse perspectives can be shared respectfully; consulting Scripture and Church teaching; undertaking prayerful discernment to understand God’s will; and striving for consensus rather than relying on majoritarian decision-making.¹⁰¹ He pointed to the Virgin Mary as a model of listening that leads to action.¹⁰¹ The ultimate goal, he stated, was not merely to produce documents but “to plant dreams, draw forth prophecies and visions, allow hope to flourish… bind up wounds, weave together relationships… learn from one another”.¹⁰³

The most ambitious expression of this vision was the multi-year global “Synod on Synodality,” officially titled “For a Synodal Church: Communion, Participation, and Mission.” Convened in October 2021, it involved unprecedented consultation phases at diocesan, national, and continental levels, seeking input from Catholics worldwide.¹⁰² This culminated in two major assemblies of bishops and other delegates (including lay men and women with voting rights for the first time ⁵) in Rome in October 2023 and October 2024. The final synthesis document from the 2024 assembly emphasized themes like relational conversion, the importance of listening, discernment, and the need for the Church to be self-emptying in service.¹⁰¹ Following the final assembly, Pope Francis initiated a three-year implementation phase (2025-2028), focused on integrating the synodal approach into the ordinary life of local Churches worldwide, culminating in another ecclesial assembly in 2028.¹⁰²

Francis hoped synodality would help transform Church structures for better evangelization, address the problem of clericalism ⁵², and lead to a degree of healthy decentralization, recognizing the role of local bishops and episcopal conferences.²⁴ However, the process and its implications were met with mixed reactions. Supporters saw it as a vital step towards realizing the vision of Vatican II, fostering greater participation and responsiveness within the Church.¹⁶ Critics, however, expressed concerns about potential confusion, the undermining of traditional structures and papal authority, and the possibility of doctrinal drift fueled by broad consultation.¹⁶

Furthermore, a certain paradox emerged. While Pope Francis championed synodality and collegiality, his own pontificate was marked by a decisive, sometimes top-down leadership style, characterized by frequent use of motu proprio – personal legislative initiatives that amended Church law.¹⁶ This led some observers to question whether synodality under Francis was primarily a consultative process ultimately leading to papal decisions, or a genuine shift towards more decentralized power-sharing. The long implementation phase initiated after the final synod assembly suggests that embedding synodality as a lived reality within the Church’s culture and structures is a complex, long-term project, the ultimate impact of which remains to be seen.¹⁰²

D. Key Magisterial Documents (Evangelii Gaudium, Amoris Laetitia, Fratelli Tutti)

Beyond his environmental teachings, Pope Francis issued several other major documents that shaped his pontificate and articulated his vision for the Church and the world. These texts consistently emphasized encounter – with Christ, with the complexities of human life, with the marginalized, and across cultures and religions – and prioritized the application of Gospel principles to contemporary challenges.

Evangelii Gaudium (The Joy of the Gospel): Released in November 2013, just months after his election, this Apostolic Exhortation served as the programmatic manifesto for his papacy.²⁴ It began with the declaration that “The Joy of the Gospel fills the hearts and lives of all who encounter Jesus”.²⁴ The document issued a powerful call for a “missionary conversion” of the entire Church, urging a shift away from self-preservation towards a permanent state of mission, going forth to the peripheries.²⁴ It stressed the centrality of the kerygma – the basic proclamation of Christ’s love, death, and resurrection.²⁴ Francis championed popular piety as a genuine expression of faith ⁸⁸ and forcefully reiterated the “preferential option for the poor” as an indispensable dimension of evangelization.²⁴ The exhortation included sharp critiques of economic inequality, consumerism, the “globalization of indifference,” and internal Church problems like “grey pragmatism,” spiritual worldliness, excessive clericalism, and internal divisions.⁸² Francis called for the Church’s doors, including the doors to the sacraments, to remain open, stating the Eucharist “is not a prize for the perfect but a powerful medicine and nourishment for the weak”.⁸² He also introduced his four principles for building social harmony: Time is greater than space; Unity prevails over conflict; Realities are more important than ideas; and The whole is greater than the part.⁸²

Amoris Laetitia (The Joy of Love): This post-synodal Apostolic Exhortation on love in the family, published in 2016, followed two Synods of Bishops dedicated to the topic in 2014 and 2015.³⁰ While reaffirming the Church’s teaching on the beauty and indissolubility of marriage, the document emphasized the need for pastoral mercy, accompaniment, and discernment when dealing with the complexities and “irregular” situations families face in the real world.³⁰ It cautioned against an “excessive idealization” of marriage that fails to account for human weakness and the need for grace.³¹ Much of the document offered practical reflections on marital love, parenting, and family life. However, Chapter 8, titled “Accompanying, Discerning and Integrating Weakness,” became the focal point of intense controversy.¹⁰⁶ This chapter suggested that, through a process of discernment guided by a pastor, Catholics who had divorced and remarried civilly without an annulment might, in specific cases, be able to receive the sacraments, including Holy Communion. This possibility was linked to mitigating factors that could lessen subjective culpability, even if the objective situation remained irregular.³⁰ Critics, including four cardinals who publicly submitted formal questions (dubia) seeking clarification, argued that the exhortation’s language was ambiguous and risked undermining fundamental Church teachings on marriage, sin, and the Eucharist.¹⁷ Francis never directly answered the dubia.¹⁷ Defenders maintained that Amoris Laetitia did not change doctrine but applied traditional moral principles regarding culpability in a more nuanced pastoral way, emphasizing the role of conscience and the need for integration rather than exclusion.⁹¹ The debate surrounding Amoris Laetitia became one of the most significant fault lines of Francis’s pontificate.

Fratelli Tutti (All Brothers and Sisters): This encyclical, released in October 2020 amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, focused on the themes of fraternity and social friendship.²⁸ Inspired by Saint Francis of Assisi’s vision of universal kinship ³⁶ and Pope Francis’s own historic meeting and joint declaration on Human Fraternity with the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar, Ahmed el-Tayeb ³⁴, the encyclical presented a powerful call for solidarity that transcends geographical, social, and religious boundaries.³⁶ Using the parable of the Good Samaritan as its central narrative thread ³⁷, Francis diagnosed contemporary “dark clouds,” including resurgent nationalism, racism, tribalism, political polarization, individualism, the “throwaway culture,” a loss of historical memory, and economic systems that prioritize profit over people (“dogma of neoliberal faith”).³⁶ He advocated for a “better kind of politics” – one oriented towards the common good, rooted in dialogue, service, and “social love”.²⁸ The encyclical strongly condemned the death penalty, calling for its global abolition ²⁸, and expressed deep skepticism about the applicability of traditional “just war” criteria in the modern era of destructive weaponry.³⁷ Addressed broadly to “all people of goodwill” ³⁶, Fratelli Tutti was seen by many as completing a triptych with Evangelii Gaudium (renewal within the Church) and Laudato Si’ (care for creation), calling for collective action to heal social wounds and build a more fraternal world.³⁶

These key documents reveal a papacy deeply concerned with applying the core messages of the Gospel – joy, mercy, love, fraternity, care for creation – to the concrete realities and challenges of the 21st century. Francis consistently sought to bridge divides, challenge indifference, and call for conversion at multiple levels – personal, ecclesial, economic, and political. His willingness to engage complex issues pastorally, however, sometimes generated controversy, particularly when perceived by critics as lacking sufficient doctrinal precision or challenging established norms.¹⁷

E. Reforming the Vatican: Curia and Finances

Pope Francis was elected in 2013 with a clear mandate from the College of Cardinals to reform the Roman Curia, the central administrative apparatus of the Holy See, and to bring order and transparency to the Vatican’s often opaque finances.⁵ This reform effort became a major, albeit complex and challenging, undertaking throughout his pontificate.

Curia Reform: The goal was to streamline the Vatican bureaucracy, making it more efficient, collaborative, and oriented towards service – service to the Pope, to local bishops’ conferences, and ultimately to the Church’s mission of evangelization.⁴⁰ Early in his papacy, Francis established a Council of Cardinals (initially comprising eight members, later expanding and contracting, often referred to as the C8, C9, or C6) to advise him on Church governance and the reform process. This multi-year effort culminated in the promulgation of the Apostolic Constitution Praedicate Evangelium (“Preach the Gospel”) in March 2022 (taking effect in June 2022).⁴⁰ This constitution represented the most significant restructuring of the Curia in decades. It reorganized Vatican departments (dicasteries), emphasizing evangelization by placing the Dicastery for Evangelization ahead of the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith in precedence. It also theoretically opened the door for lay men and women to head certain dicasteries, previously reserved for cardinals or bishops. Throughout the process, Francis frequently used his annual Christmas addresses to the Curia to challenge what he saw as negative aspects of its culture, such as careerism, gossip, resistance to change, and “spiritual worldliness”.⁴⁰ He also made efforts to appoint more women to significant decision-making roles within Vatican structures.⁵

Financial Reform: Tackling the Vatican’s finances proved an even more protracted and difficult struggle. Building on initial steps taken by Benedict XVI, Francis aimed to instill modern standards of transparency, accountability, and professional management across all Vatican financial entities, preventing the Holy See from being used for illicit activities like money laundering.⁴⁰ Key structural changes included the creation in 2014 of the Council for the Economy, composed of cardinals, bishops, and lay financial experts, to oversee economic policies, and the establishment of the Secretariat for the Economy, intended to have broad authority over all financial and administrative activities.⁴⁰ Australian Cardinal George Pell was appointed as the first prefect of the Secretariat, tasked with implementing modern accounting practices and gaining a clear picture of the Vatican’s complex assets and expenditures.⁴⁰ His initial efforts revealed hundreds of millions of euros held in off-balance-sheet accounts, highlighting the previous lack of centralized control.⁴⁰

Francis also strengthened the Vatican’s financial intelligence unit (first known as AIF, later renamed ASIF), responsible for monitoring transactions and combating financial crime.¹¹⁴ New laws were introduced to regulate procurement and contracts, mandating competitive bidding and barring conflicts of interest.¹¹⁴ A significant move came in the wake of the London property scandal, when Francis stripped the powerful Secretariat of State of its authority to manage its own substantial financial portfolio, transferring control to the Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See (APSA), the Vatican’s central asset management body.¹¹⁴

Despite these significant structural reforms, the process was fraught with challenges, internal resistance, and ongoing scandals.¹⁶ The most damaging was the aforementioned London property deal, which exposed poor judgment, lack of oversight, and alleged criminal activity at high levels, leading to a landmark trial.¹¹⁶ While the trial demonstrated a newfound willingness to prosecute even cardinals for financial crimes ¹¹⁵, it also raised questions about the Vatican’s judicial processes.¹¹⁹ Furthermore, the reforms themselves sometimes caused disruption, as applying standard corporate financial practices to the unique entity of the Holy See – a sovereign state without a typical market economy, reliant on donations and investments ¹¹⁸ – proved complex and occasionally counterproductive.¹¹⁸ Critics pointed to fluctuating profits at the IOR (Vatican Bank) ¹¹⁸ and argued that the reforms, while well-intentioned, had sometimes undermined the Holy See’s financial autonomy and stability.¹¹⁸

Ultimately, the reform of the Vatican under Francis represented a long, contested struggle. Significant progress was made in creating structures for modern governance and financial oversight. However, changing the deeply ingrained institutional culture, overcoming resistance, and fully implementing these reforms proved to be an arduous task. The persistence of scandals throughout his pontificate indicated that achieving comprehensive transparency and accountability within the unique context of the Vatican remained an ongoing challenge, leaving a legacy of ambitious reform initiatives alongside unresolved questions about their ultimate effectiveness and the Holy See’s financial health.¹⁶

IV. The Pilgrim of Peace: Global Ministry and Diplomacy

A. Journeys to the Peripheries: Notable Apostolic Visits

Pope Francis embraced papal travel as a vital instrument of his ministry, undertaking an extensive schedule of 47 Apostolic Journeys outside Italy, visiting 68 countries across every inhabited continent during his 12-year pontificate.¹⁴ Averaging roughly four international trips per year ⁹⁰, his travels were distinct in their frequent focus on the “peripheries” – geographically, socially, and religiously.⁴ He often chose destinations overlooked by his predecessors or nations grappling with conflict, poverty, or minority Christian communities facing hardship. His journeys became platforms for promoting peace, advocating for migrants and the poor, fostering interfaith dialogue, and bringing a message of closeness and encouragement.¹⁴

His style on these trips reflected his emphasis on simplicity and encounter. He often eschewed armored vehicles for simpler cars or open-air popemobiles, allowing for greater contact with the crowds.⁹⁰ While fulfilling diplomatic protocols by meeting heads of state, he frequently used these occasions to deliver direct, sometimes critical messages urging leaders towards justice, peace, and inclusion.⁹⁰ Yet, his interactions with ordinary people, the faithful, and those suffering were marked by warmth, compassion, and gestures of tenderness.²⁷

Several trips stand out for their symbolic weight or geopolitical significance:

• Lampedusa, Italy (July 2013): His very first trip outside Rome set the tone. Visiting this small island, a primary landing point for migrants crossing the Mediterranean, he mourned the dead, threw a wreath into the sea, and powerfully denounced the “globalization of indifference” towards the plight of refugees.⁹
• Holy Land (May 2014): Visiting Jordan, Palestine, and Israel, he met with Orthodox Patriarch Bartholomew I, fostering ecumenical ties, and made a poignant, unscheduled stop to pray at the Israeli West Bank separation barrier.²⁶
• Strasbourg, France (November 2014): A remarkably focused, four-hour visit solely to address the European Parliament and the Council of Europe on issues like migration and workers’ rights. The lack of any pastoral or liturgical event, despite it being the millennium of Strasbourg’s cathedral, underscored its purely political objective.¹⁵
• Philippines (January 2015): Part of a trip that also included Sri Lanka, his visit to Tacloban, devastated by Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan), was a powerful moment of pastoral compassion, comforting survivors amidst another storm.²⁶ The Mass in Manila drew one of the largest crowds in papal history.
• Cuba and USA (September 2015): Following his key role in brokering the thaw in relations, he visited both nations. In the US, he became the first pope to address a joint session of Congress, urging lawmakers to pursue the common good, and canonized St. Junípero Serra. In Cuba, he met with both Raúl and Fidel Castro.²⁶
• Lesbos, Greece (April 2016): Together with Patriarch Bartholomew and Archbishop Ieronymos II of Athens, he visited the Moria refugee camp, drawing attention to the ongoing European migrant crisis. In a dramatic gesture, he brought three Syrian Muslim refugee families back to Rome aboard the papal plane.⁹
• Egypt (April 2017): Aimed at strengthening Christian-Muslim relations after tensions, he visited Al-Azhar University, the preeminent center of Sunni learning, met with Grand Imam Ahmed el-Tayeb, and delivered a strong speech against religious violence.³⁹
• Myanmar and Bangladesh (November 2017): A diplomatically sensitive trip overshadowed by the Rohingya crisis. He met with Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh, expressing solidarity after facing constraints on speaking directly about their plight while in Myanmar.³²
• United Arab Emirates (February 2019): The first-ever papal visit to the Arabian Peninsula. The highlight was signing the historic “Document on Human Fraternity for World Peace and Living Together” alongside Grand Imam el-Tayeb.³²
• Iraq (March 2021): Another unprecedented and courageous journey, the first papal visit to Iraq. He aimed to encourage the country’s battered Christian minority, promote national reconciliation, and advance interfaith dialogue. Key moments included meeting Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, the revered leader of Shia Islam, in Najaf, praying amidst the ruins of Mosul (formerly held by ISIS), and visiting the ancient city of Ur, traditional birthplace of Abraham.⁵
• Canada (July 2022): Undertaken as a “penitential pilgrimage,” the trip focused on reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples. Francis offered multiple apologies for the Catholic Church’s role in the abuses and cultural suppression committed within the residential school system.¹

Notably, despite visiting dozens of countries, Pope Francis never made a papal trip back to his native Argentina.¹²² While expressing a desire to return, the visit never materialized, with speculation centering on his wish to avoid being drawn into the country’s deeply polarized political environment.¹²²

Francis masterfully utilized papal travel as a tool for both pastoral ministry and global diplomacy.¹⁵ His deliberate choice of destinations often shifted the papal focus away from traditional Catholic centers towards the peripheries, highlighting forgotten conflicts, supporting vulnerable communities, and engaging directly with pressing global issues like migration, poverty, and interreligious harmony.¹⁴ Trips like those to Strasbourg, the UAE, Iraq, and Canada demonstrated a clear use of the papacy’s unique platform for geopolitical engagement and reconciliation, marking a distinct emphasis compared to the travel patterns of his immediate predecessors.¹⁵

B. Building Bridges: Interfaith Dialogue and Diplomatic Achievements

A cornerstone of Pope Francis’s global engagement was his commitment to interfaith dialogue and diplomatic mediation, seeking to build bridges across religious and political divides.¹ He saw dialogue not as a dilution of faith but as an essential path towards peace and mutual understanding in a fragmented world.

His efforts towards dialogue with Islam were particularly significant and sustained.⁵ He cultivated a warm personal relationship with Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb, the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar University in Cairo, the leading institution in Sunni Islam. After a period of strained relations under Pope Benedict XVI, Francis met el-Tayeb multiple times, beginning at the Vatican in 2016, followed by visits to Cairo (2017), Abu Dhabi (2019), and Bahrain (2022).³² Their most landmark achievement was the co-signing of the “Document on Human Fraternity for World Peace and Living Together” in Abu Dhabi in February 2019.³² This declaration condemned violence committed in God’s name, promoted religious tolerance and mutual respect, and called for cooperation between faiths to address global challenges. It represented a major step in Catholic-Muslim relations. Francis also broke new ground in dialogue with Shia Islam during his 2021 trip to Iraq, holding a historic private meeting in Najaf with Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, perhaps the most influential figure in Shia Islam.⁵ Their conversation focused on peace, coexistence, and the protection of religious minorities, particularly Iraq’s Christians. These encounters aimed to counter extremism and build a “culture of encounter” based on shared human values.¹¹⁰

In the realm of international diplomacy, Pope Francis leveraged the Holy See’s unique position and his personal credibility to act as a mediator and advocate for peace. His most celebrated success came early in his papacy with the restoration of diplomatic relations between the United States and Cuba in December 2014.¹ Francis played a crucial behind-the-scenes role, writing personal letters to Presidents Barack Obama and Raúl Castro urging dialogue and the resolution of humanitarian issues like prisoner releases. He also hosted secret meetings between US and Cuban delegations at the Vatican in October 2014, providing “good offices” that helped facilitate the breakthrough.¹²⁵ This achievement highlighted the potential of papal diplomacy under his leadership.¹²⁵

He also dedicated significant attention to other conflict zones. He was deeply involved in efforts to promote peace in South Sudan, famously hosting a spiritual retreat at the Vatican in April 2019 for the country’s rival political leaders, during which he knelt and kissed their feet, pleading with them to overcome their differences and implement the peace agreement.¹²⁹ He consistently called for peace in Syria, Ukraine, and the Holy Land, hosting Israeli and Palestinian presidents for a prayer meeting at the Vatican in 2014 ¹²⁸ and advocating for a two-state solution.¹¹¹

One of his most complex and controversial diplomatic initiatives was the provisional agreement signed between the Holy See and the People’s Republic of China in September 2018, concerning the appointment of Catholic bishops in China.¹ The details of the agreement remained secret, but its aim was to heal the decades-long division between the state-sanctioned Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association and the “underground” Church loyal to Rome, allowing for bishops recognized by both sides. The agreement was renewed in 2020 and 2022 but drew criticism from various quarters, including the US government and some Catholics (including Cardinal Joseph Zen of Hong Kong), who argued it conceded too much authority to the Communist government and failed to adequately protect religious freedom or address human rights concerns.¹⁷

Francis’s approach to diplomacy mirrored his pastoral style, emphasizing personal encounter, patient dialogue, and building relationships based on shared humanity.¹¹³ He effectively utilized the Vatican’s moral authority and perceived neutrality.¹²⁵ His interfaith outreach shifted focus from purely theological discussions towards practical collaboration and fostering fraternity.³⁴ However, the China agreement exemplified the inherent difficulties and potential compromises involved in Vatican diplomacy, where the pursuit of long-term goals like Church unity sometimes clashed with immediate concerns about human rights and religious liberty, reflecting the complex balancing act inherent in the Holy See’s engagement with global powers.

V. Navigating Controversy: The Trials of the Papacy

Despite the energy and hope generated by his pontificate, Pope Francis’s tenure was also marked by significant challenges, controversies, and criticisms, particularly concerning the Church’s handling of the clergy sexual abuse crisis, internal theological and liturgical disputes, and persistent financial scandals.

A. The Enduring Shadow: The Clergy Abuse Crisis

Pope Francis inherited the global clergy sexual abuse crisis, a devastating wound on the Body of Christ that continued to unfold during his papacy.⁷¹ He expressed strong condemnation of these “abominable crimes” ¹³⁰ and acknowledged the need for accountability, transparency, and, crucially, listening to the voices of survivors.¹³¹ However, his leadership on this front was often perceived as inconsistent, marked by significant reforms but also damaging missteps and lingering questions about his resolve.⁹

A major crisis erupted during his visit to Chile in January 2018.³³ Francis initially defended Bishop Juan Barros, who was accused by multiple victims of witnessing and covering up the abuse perpetrated by his mentor, the notorious Father Fernando Karadima. The Pope dismissed the accusations against Barros as “calumny”.⁹ This stance provoked outrage among survivors and sharp criticism even from within the Church hierarchy, including from Cardinal Seán O’Malley, the head of the Pope’s own commission on abuse prevention.³³ Faced with the backlash, Francis admitted he had made “grave errors” of judgment, ordered a thorough investigation led by Archbishop Charles Scicluna of Malta, and subsequently apologized profusely to the victims and the Chilean people.⁹ He summoned all of Chile’s active bishops to Rome, where they collectively offered their resignations.⁹ While seen as a crucial turning point in acknowledging the systemic nature of cover-up, the Chilean episode severely damaged Francis’s credibility on the issue.⁹

The case of former U.S. Cardinal Theodore McCarrick also cast a shadow. While Francis ultimately removed McCarrick from the priesthood (laicized him) in 2019 after a Vatican investigation confirmed decades of sexual misconduct, including the abuse of minors ⁹, serious questions remained. Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò, a former Vatican ambassador to the U.S., published a explosive letter in August 2018 accusing Pope Francis and other high-ranking prelates of having known about McCarrick’s predatory behavior for years and failing to act, even alleging that Francis had lifted sanctions supposedly imposed on McCarrick by Pope Benedict XVI.⁷³ While Viganò’s credibility and motives were questioned ⁷³, his accusations fueled demands for greater transparency about McCarrick’s rise through the Church ranks despite persistent rumors. The Vatican eventually released a detailed report on the McCarrick affair in November 2020, acknowledging failures by numerous Church officials over decades, including John Paul II, but largely clearing Francis of specific wrongdoing in Viganò’s allegations.

Further criticism arose over Francis’s handling of the case of Argentine Bishop Gustavo Zanchetta, whom the Pope had appointed to a position within the Vatican’s financial administration (APSA) even as allegations of sexual and financial misconduct were emerging from his former diocese.¹³² Critics saw this as an instance of papal favoritism overriding concerns about potential abuse.¹³⁰

Amidst these controversies, Pope Francis did implement significant reforms aimed at prevention and accountability:

• He established the Pontifical Commission for the Protection of Minors in 2014 to advise him and promote best practices globally.³³ However, the Commission itself faced challenges, including the resignation of some survivor members who felt their voices weren’t adequately heard or that progress was too slow.¹³³ Francis continued to encourage its work, emphasizing the need for healing.¹³⁴
• He convened a global summit of bishops’ conference presidents in February 2019 to address the crisis comprehensively.⁹
• Following the summit, he issued the landmark motu proprio Vos Estis Lux Mundi (“You are the Light of the World”) in May 2019. This legislation mandated, for the first time globally, that all clergy and religious report suspicions of abuse and cover-up to Church authorities. It also established clear procedures and mechanisms for investigating allegations against bishops themselves for abuse or negligence.³⁵
• In December 2019, he abolished the application of “pontifical secrecy” – the highest level of confidentiality – to canonical processes involving sexual abuse cases.⁹ This was a long-sought reform aimed at increasing transparency and facilitating cooperation with civil authorities.³⁵
• He also raised the age threshold defining child pornography within Church law from 14 to 18.³⁵

Despite these legislative actions, critics argued that implementation remained inconsistent and that a true culture change regarding clericalism and cover-up was slow to materialize.¹³⁰ The perception persisted among some survivor groups and advocates that the Pope’s commitment to “zero tolerance” was not always matched by decisive action in specific cases.¹³² The abuse crisis thus remained a painful and complex challenge throughout Francis’s papacy, marked by a cycle of crisis, reform efforts, specific misjudgments requiring correction, and continued scrutiny, leaving a mixed and contested legacy on arguably the most damaging scandal facing the modern Church.

B. Doctrinal Debates and Internal Resistance

From the earliest days of his pontificate, Pope Francis encountered significant and often vocal resistance from conservative and traditionalist factions within the Catholic Church.¹⁶ This opposition, particularly prominent in the Anglophone world, represented a notable shift, as figures who had been staunch defenders of papal authority under John Paul II and Benedict XVI became outspoken critics of the current pontiff.¹⁷

The criticisms stemmed from various sources and often intertwined theological concerns with cultural and political anxieties. Key areas of contention included:

• Pastoral Style and Doctrine: Francis’s emphasis on pastoral accompaniment, mercy, and discernment, particularly as articulated in Amoris Laetitia, was frequently criticized for perceived ambiguity that critics claimed sowed confusion and risked undermining established Church doctrine on marriage, sexuality, and the reception of sacraments.¹⁶ His focus on mercy was sometimes interpreted as downplaying the reality of sin or objective moral truths.¹⁷
• Social and Economic Teachings: His strong critiques of market capitalism, consumerism, and environmental exploitation, especially in Laudato Si’, were viewed by some conservatives as aligning the papacy with left-leaning political agendas or “globalism”.¹⁷
• Synodality: The process of synodality, aimed at fostering broader participation and listening, was met with suspicion by those who feared it could dilute hierarchical authority or lead to changes in doctrine through decentralized consultation.¹⁶
• Liturgy: Francis’s decision in 2021 to restrict the celebration of the Traditional Latin Mass (the pre-Vatican II rite), reversing permissions granted by Benedict XVI, provoked strong opposition from traditionalist Catholics who felt their liturgical heritage was being suppressed.¹⁶ Critics saw this move as contradicting his calls for tolerance and diversity.¹⁶
• Diplomacy and Appointments: Certain diplomatic initiatives, most notably the controversial agreement with China regarding bishop appointments, drew fire for allegedly compromising the Church’s principles.¹⁷ His personnel choices were also scrutinized, with accusations of favouritism in cases like that of Bishop Zanchetta.¹³²

Prominent critics included several cardinals, such as Raymond Burke, George Pell (before his death), Gerhard Müller (former head of the doctrinal office), and Robert Sarah (former head of the worship office) ¹⁷, as well as outspoken bishops like Athanasius Schneider of Kazakhstan ¹³⁵ and Joseph Strickland of Tyler, Texas (whom Francis eventually removed from his diocese).¹³⁵ A network of conservative Catholic media outlets and blogs amplified these criticisms.¹⁷

The most dramatic instance of internal opposition came from Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò. Following his 2018 letter accusing Francis regarding McCarrick and calling for his resignation ⁷³, Viganò’s positions became increasingly radical. He went on to reject the Second Vatican Council, condemn the Mass of Paul VI, question the legitimacy of Francis’s election, and praise figures like Vladimir Putin.⁷³ This trajectory led many former allies to distance themselves, and in 2024, the Vatican initiated a canonical process against him on charges of schism, which could lead to excommunication.⁷³

Pope Francis generally adopted a strategy of not engaging directly with his most vocal critics. He did not provide a direct response to the dubia concerning Amoris Laetitia ¹⁷ and initially maintained silence regarding Viganò’s accusations.¹³³ He occasionally addressed criticisms indirectly in homilies or interviews, defending the orthodoxy of his teachings. However, particularly later in his pontificate, he took administrative actions against some prominent opponents, such as removing Cardinal Burke from certain Vatican positions and asking him to vacate his Vatican apartment, removing Bishop Strickland, and authorizing the schism trial against Viganò.¹³⁵

Much of this internal resistance, while often framed in theological or liturgical terms, appeared to have deep roots in differing ecclesial visions and, significantly, in political ideologies.¹⁷ Francis’s consistent challenging of economic inequality, his welcoming stance toward migrants, and his urgent calls for climate action often clashed with the political agendas of conservative movements, particularly in the United States, which had felt more aligned with the “culture warrior” image projected by parts of the Church under his predecessors.¹⁷ This politicization of dissent created a highly polarized environment within the Church during his papacy.

C. Financial Scandals and the Path to Transparency

The effort to reform Vatican finances, a key mandate of Francis’s pontificate, was consistently hampered by the emergence of new scandals and the complexities of implementing modern financial controls within the unique sovereign structure of the Holy See.¹⁶

The most significant financial scandal involved the Secretariat of State’s disastrous investment in a luxury property at 60 Sloane Avenue in London.⁴⁰ Beginning around 2014, the Secretariat invested hundreds of millions of euros, including funds derived from Peter’s Pence (donations for the Pope’s charities), into the property through complex arrangements involving multiple intermediaries and offshore funds.¹¹⁷ The deal ultimately resulted in estimated losses exceeding €200 million for the Vatican.⁴⁰ This affair triggered a sprawling internal investigation and culminated in an unprecedented Vatican trial that began in July 2021.¹¹⁵ Ten individuals, including financiers, former Vatican officials, and, most notably, Cardinal Angelo Becciu (who served as Substitute, or chief of staff, at the Secretariat of State during the initial investment phase), faced charges ranging from embezzlement, fraud, abuse of office, money laundering, and extortion.⁴⁰ In December 2023, the Vatican court delivered verdicts, sentencing Cardinal Becciu to five and a half years in prison and convicting several others, while acquitting some defendants.¹²⁰ The trial itself was seen as a major test of Francis’s commitment to financial accountability, marking the first time a cardinal had been tried for financial crimes by a Vatican lay tribunal.¹¹⁵ The property was eventually sold in 2022 at a significant loss.¹¹⁷ A British court ruling in 2025 confirmed that the Vatican had indeed been defrauded in the deal by financier Raffaele Mincione.¹²⁰

The Institute for the Works of Religion (IOR), commonly known as the Vatican Bank, also continued to face scrutiny.¹¹⁴ While Francis continued reforms aimed at ensuring its compliance with international anti-money laundering standards, past issues surfaced. Former IOR leaders were convicted in Italian courts for embezzlement related to the sale of Vatican properties.¹¹⁶ The IOR itself played a role in triggering the London property investigation by reporting irregularities to Vatican authorities.¹¹⁹ Its financial performance during Francis’s pontificate reportedly did not match the record profits seen just before his election.¹¹⁸

Other financial controversies included allegations of embezzlement at the Vatican-owned Bambino Gesù children’s hospital, where funds were allegedly diverted to renovate the apartment of former Secretary of State Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone.¹¹⁶ Additionally, the Vatican’s first-ever Auditor General, Libero Milone, appointed by Francis in 2015, was forced to resign in 2017 amidst accusations of spying; Milone later claimed he was ousted because his audits were uncovering inconvenient financial information.¹¹⁶

These recurring scandals underscored the deep-seated challenges in reforming the Vatican’s financial culture. They exposed a lack of financial expertise among some supervising prelates, inadequate internal controls, potential conflicts of interest, and susceptibility to exploitation by external actors.¹¹⁵ Francis’s reforms aimed to address these weaknesses by centralizing financial management under APSA, strengthening oversight bodies like the Secretariat for the Economy and ASIF, and implementing transparent procedures for procurement and investments.⁴⁰

However, the path to transparency revealed a fundamental dilemma: reconciling the need for modern, internationally recognized standards of financial accountability with the Vatican’s unique status as a sovereign entity possessing historically opaque structures and operating outside typical market economies.¹¹⁶ While the Becciu trial signaled a move towards accountability regardless of rank ¹¹⁵, the process itself faced criticism regarding due process, particularly the use of papal rescripts (decrees) during the investigation phase, which some saw as undue sovereign interference in the judicial process.¹¹⁹ This highlighted the inherent tension in imposing external norms on the singular legal and governance framework of the Holy See, leaving the long-term success of the financial reforms a subject of ongoing evaluation.

VI. Assessing the Legacy: Pope Francis in History

Evaluating the legacy of a figure as transformative and complex as Pope Francis mere moments after his passing is necessarily provisional. Yet, the contours of his impact on the Catholic Church and the wider world are already discernible, marked by profound shifts in pastoral emphasis, renewed global engagement, significant internal tensions, and a papacy that consistently sought to encounter the world beyond the Vatican walls.

A. Impact on the Catholic Church: Transformation and Tension

Pope Francis undeniably changed the face and feel of the papacy and, for many, the Catholic Church itself. His emphasis on simplicity, humility, and pastoral closeness – wanting shepherds with the “smell of the sheep” – offered a stark contrast to the more formal or academic styles of his immediate predecessors.³ He consciously dismantled some of the symbolic trappings of the papal court ³⁰ and adopted a more direct, informal communication style, readily granting interviews and speaking off-the-cuff.

His pontificate represented a significant pastoral reorientation. Mercy, accompaniment, and outreach to the peripheries became central themes, driving initiatives like the Year of Mercy and shaping his major teachings.²⁸ He issued a clarion call for the Church to become fundamentally missionary, constantly going forth to share the joy of the Gospel (Evangelii Gaudium).²⁴ He consistently challenged legalism, clericalism, and institutional self-absorption, urging a focus on people over rules.⁵²

Structurally, he initiated significant changes: the comprehensive reform of the Roman Curia (Praedicate Evangelium) ⁴⁰, ambitious if contested financial reforms ⁴⁰, the promotion of synodality as a new way of Church governance ¹⁰¹, and the appointment of more laypeople, particularly women, to positions of responsibility within the Vatican.⁵

In terms of teaching, while reaffirming core Catholic doctrines, Francis often emphasized their pastoral application in new ways. Amoris Laetitia sought to apply mercy to complex family situations.³¹ He officially changed the Catechism’s teaching to declare the death penalty “inadmissible” in all circumstances.⁵ He significantly developed the Church’s ecological teaching with Laudato Si’ and Laudate Deum ⁴¹, and advanced Catholic social thought on universal fraternity with Fratelli Tutti.³⁶ His approach towards LGBTQ+ individuals, starting with “Who am I to judge?” and evolving to discussions around blessings for individuals in same-sex relationships, signaled a more welcoming pastoral tone, even while upholding traditional doctrine on marriage.¹

This “Francis effect” generated immense enthusiasm and hope among many Catholics and observers worldwide, particularly those who felt marginalized or desired a Church perceived as more compassionate, relevant, and engaged with contemporary suffering.⁵ He was seen as humanizing the papacy and bringing it closer to the people.¹⁰

However, this same transformative energy provoked considerable division and resistance within the Church.¹⁶ Traditionalist and conservative Catholics often expressed alarm over what they perceived as doctrinal ambiguity, a downplaying of objective moral norms, unwelcome liturgical changes (especially regarding the Latin Mass), and a departure from the perceived clarity of his predecessors. His papacy exposed and arguably deepened pre-existing fault lines within Catholicism regarding the interpretation of Vatican II, the balance between doctrine and pastoral practice, and the Church’s relationship with modernity.

His legacy within the Church is therefore one of profound pastoral dynamism coupled with significant internal polarization. He leaves behind a Church arguably more focused on mission, mercy, social justice, and the peripheries, yet also more openly contested and grappling with the long-term implications of his reforms, particularly the ongoing process of synodality.

B. A Voice on the World Stage: Influence Beyond the Vatican

Beyond the internal life of the Church, Pope Francis emerged as a major figure on the global stage, wielding significant moral influence.¹ His background as the first pope from the Global South gave him a unique perspective and credibility when addressing international issues. He was named Time magazine’s Person of the Year in 2013, shortly after his election, signaling his immediate global impact.²⁸

He used his platform relentlessly to advocate on pressing global challenges: poverty and economic inequality, the plight of migrants and refugees, the urgency of climate change, the need for peace and disarmament (including condemning the possession, not just use, of nuclear weapons), and the importance of interreligious harmony.³ His encyclicals Laudato Si’ and Fratelli Tutti, while rooted in Catholic teaching, were intentionally addressed to “all people of goodwill” and engaged directly with scientific, economic, and political discourse, resonating far beyond Church circles.³⁶ His critique of a globalized “throwaway culture” and unjust economic structures found a wide audience.³

His personal diplomacy yielded tangible results, most notably his instrumental role in the normalization of relations between the United States and Cuba.¹ His persistent efforts in interreligious dialogue, particularly his groundbreaking encounters with leading figures in both Sunni (Grand Imam el-Tayeb) and Shia (Grand Ayatollah al-Sistani) Islam, aimed to build bridges and counter extremism.³⁹ His apostolic journeys were often strategically chosen to highlight global crises or foster peace and reconciliation.¹⁵ He was unafraid to challenge powerful political leaders directly on issues like migration policy.³

Through these consistent efforts, Pope Francis successfully reasserted the papacy’s role as a significant voice of conscience in international affairs. He moved the Vatican’s focus beyond internal ecclesial matters to actively engage with and critique the prevailing global economic, political, and environmental order, arguably enhancing the moral authority and relevance of the Holy See on the world stage during his tenure.

C. Concluding Thoughts: A Papacy of Encounter and Complexity

Pope Francis, Jorge Mario Bergoglio, the Jesuit from Buenos Aires, led the Catholic Church for twelve years with a distinctive style and a clear set of priorities rooted in his experiences on the peripheries of the world and the Church. His papacy was defined by an emphasis on God’s mercy, a deep solidarity with the poor and marginalized, an urgent call to care for our common home, a commitment to dialogue across divides, and a drive for internal Church reform towards greater mission and participation.

He brought a palpable energy and a different perspective to the See of Peter, inspiring millions with his humility, his directness, and his vision of a Church as a “field hospital” dedicated to healing wounds. He challenged complacency both inside and outside the Church, urging an “ecological conversion” and a rejection of the “globalization of indifference.” His diplomatic initiatives fostered reconciliation, and his interfaith outreach built unprecedented bridges, particularly with the Islamic world.

Yet, his pontificate was also fraught with profound challenges and controversies. The clergy sexual abuse crisis continued to cast a long shadow, and his handling of it, despite significant reforms, drew sharp criticism and raised persistent questions. His efforts at reform within the Vatican met with resistance and were complicated by ongoing financial scandals. His pastoral approach, while welcomed by many, generated significant internal dissent and polarization among those who prioritized doctrinal clarity and tradition above all else.

The legacy Pope Francis leaves is thus inherently complex and will undoubtedly be debated for generations. He was a pope of encounter, constantly seeking to engage with the realities of human suffering, social injustice, and environmental degradation. He pushed the Church outwards, towards the geographical and existential peripheries, demanding that it be less self-referential and more engaged in the world’s struggles. He initiated processes – synodality, curial reform, ecological awareness – whose long-term consequences are still unfolding. He leaves behind a Church potentially more merciful, more globally aware, and more focused on the poor, but also one grappling with internal divisions perhaps more visible than before. His was a papacy of profound change, deep compassion, and unresolved questions – a testament to the enduring complexity of leading a global faith in a rapidly changing world.

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